Linus Pauling ameriški znanstvenik

Linus Pauling, v celoti Linus Carl Pauling, (rojen 28. februarja 1901, Portland, Oregon, ZDA - umrl 19. avgusta 1994, Big Sur, Kalifornija), ameriški teoretični fizik, ki je postal edina oseba, ki je dobila dve neobljubljeni Nobelovi nagradi. Njegovo prvo nagrado (1954) je prejel za raziskave narave kemijske vezi in njene uporabe pri razjasnjevanju molekularne strukture; drugi (1962) je priznal njegova prizadevanja za prepoved testiranja jedrskega orožja.

Zgodnje življenje in izobraževanje

Pauling je bil prvi od treh otrok in edini sin Hermana Paulinga, farmacevta, in Lucy Isabelle (Darling) Pauling, farmacevtska hči. Po zgodnjem šolanju v Condonu in Portlandu v Oregonu se je udeležil kmetijskega kolidža v Oregonu (danes Oregon State University), kjer je spoznal Ava Helen Miller, ki bo pozneje postala njegova žena, in kjer je dobil diplomo iz kemijskega inženirstva summa cum laude leta 1922. Nato se je udeležil kalifornijskega tehnološkega inštituta (Caltech), kjer mu je Roscoe G. Dickinson pokazal, kako določiti strukture kristalov s pomočjo X-žarkov. Dobil je doktorat. leta 1925 za disertacijo iz njegovih člankov s kristalno strukturo. Po krajšem obdobju kot nacionalni znanstveni sodelavec je prejel štipendijo Guggenheim za študij kvantne mehanike v Evropi.Večino 18 mesecev je preživel na Inštitutu za teoretično fiziko Arnolda Sommerfelda v Münchnu, Nemčija.

Razjasnitev molekulskih struktur

Po končanem podoktorskem študiju se je Pauling vrnil na Caltech leta 1927. Tam je začel dolgo kariero poučevanja in raziskovanja. Analiza kemijske strukture je postala osrednja tema njegovega znanstvenega dela. S tehniko rentgenske difrakcije je določil tridimenzionalno razporeditev atomov v več pomembnih silikatnih in sulfidnih mineralov. Leta 1930 je Pauling med potovanjem po Nemčiji izvedel difrakcijo elektronov, po vrnitvi v Kalifornijo pa je uporabil to tehniko razprševanja elektronov iz jeder molekul, da je določil strukture nekaterih pomembnih snovi. To strukturno znanje mu je pomagalo pri razvoju lestvice elektronegativnosti, v kateri je dodelil število, ki predstavlja določeno moč atoma, da privlači elektrone v kovalentni vezi.

To complement the experimental tool that X-ray analysis provided for exploring molecular structure, Pauling turned to quantum mechanics as a theoretical tool. For example, he used quantum mechanics to determine the equivalent strength in each of the four bonds surrounding the carbon atom. He developed a valence bond theory in which he proposed that a molecule could be described by an intermediate structure that was a resonance combination (or hybrid) of other structures. His book The Nature of the Chemical Bond, and the Structure of Molecules and Crystals (1939) provided a unified summary of his vision of structural chemistry.

The arrival of the geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan at Caltech in the late 1920s stimulated Pauling’s interest in biological molecules, and by the mid-1930s he was performing successful magnetic studies on the protein hemoglobin. He developed further interests in protein and, together with biochemist Alfred Mirsky, Pauling published a paper in 1936 on general protein structure. In this work the authors explained that protein molecules naturally coiled into specific configurations but became “denatured” (uncoiled) and assumed some random form once certain weak bonds were broken.

On one of his trips to visit Mirsky in New York, Pauling met Karl Landsteiner, the discoverer of blood types, who became his guide into the field of immunochemistry. Pauling was fascinated by the specificity of antibody-antigen reactions, and he later developed a theory that accounted for this specificity through a unique folding of the antibody’s polypeptide chain. World War II interrupted this theoretical work, and Pauling’s focus shifted to more practical problems, including the preparation of an artificial substitute for blood serum useful to wounded soldiers and an oxygen detector useful in submarines and airplanes. J. Robert Oppenheimer asked Pauling to head the chemistry section of the Manhattan Project, but his suffering from glomerulonephritis (inflammation of the glomerular region of the kidney) prevented him from accepting this offer. For his outstanding services during the war, Pauling was later awarded the Presidential Medal for Merit.

While collaborating on a report about postwar American science, Pauling became interested in the study of sickle-cell anemia. He perceived that the sickling of cells noted in this disease might be caused by a genetic mutation in the globin portion of the blood cell’s hemoglobin. In 1949 he and his coworkers published a paper identifying the particular defect in hemoglobin’s structure that was responsible for sickle-cell anemia, which thereby made this disorder the first “molecular disease” to be discovered. At that time, Pauling’s article on the periodic law appeared in the 14th edition of Encyclopædia.

While serving as a visiting professor at the University of Oxford in 1948, Pauling returned to a problem that had intrigued him in the late 1930s—the three-dimensional structure of proteins. By folding a paper on which he had drawn a chain of linked amino acids, he discovered a cylindrical coil-like configuration, later called the alpha helix. The most significant aspect of Pauling’s structure was its determination of the number of amino acids per turn of the helix. During this same period he became interested in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and early in 1953 he and protein crystallographer Robert Corey published their version of DNA’s structure, three strands twisted around each other in ropelike fashion. Shortly thereafter James Watson and Francis Crick published DNA’s correct structure, a double helix. Pauling’s efforts to modify his postulated structure had been hampered by poor X-ray photographs of DNA and by his lack of understanding of this molecule’s wet and dry forms. In 1952 he failed to visit Rosalind Franklin, working in Maurice Wilkins’s laboratory at King’s College, London, and consequently did not see her X-ray pictures of DNA. Frankin’s pictures proved to be the linchpin in allowing Watson and Crick to elucidate the actual structure. Nevertheless, Pauling was awarded the 1954 Nobel Prize for Chemistry “for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances.”