John J. Pershing, general ZDA

John J. Pershing, v celoti John Joseph Pershing, po imenu Black Jack (rojen 13. septembra 1860, Laclede, Missouri, ZDA - umrl 15. julija 1948, Washington, DC), general ameriške vojske, ki je poveljeval ameriškim ekspedicijskim silam (AEF) v Evropi med prvo svetovno vojno.

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Pershing je leta 1886 diplomiral na ameriški vojaški akademiji v West Pointu v New Yorku. Poveljnik je bil imenovan za drugega poročnika in dodeljen 6. konjenici, ki je nato vodila operacije proti Geronimu in Chiricahua Apache na jugozahodu. Leta 1890 je Pershing služil v kampanji za zatiranje gibanja Ghost Dance in vstaje med Siouxom na ozemlju Dakota, vendar njegova enota ni sodelovala pri pokolu pri Ranjenem kolenu. Leta 1891 je postal inštruktor vojaške znanosti na univerzi v Nebraski v Lincolnu. Medtem je tam tudi pridobil diplomo prava (1893). V West Pointu je bil leta 1897 imenovan za inštruktorja za taktiko.

Špansko-ameriška vojna je Pershingu dala priložnost za hitro napredovanje. Na Kubi je služboval v kampanji Santiago (1898) in bil imenovan za častnika v čin bojnika. Junija 1899 je postal generalni pomočnik. V vojnem oddelku je organiziral biro za notranje zadeve in več mesecev deloval na čelu tega biroja. Pershing je bil poslan na Filipine kot generalni pomočnik oddelka Mindanao novembra 1899. Leta 1901 je postal kapetan v redni vojski in vodil pohod proti Morosu do leta 1903. Leta 1905 so ga na vojaško atašeje poslali na Japonsko ameriškega veleposlaništva, med rusko-japonsko vojno pa je več mesecev preživel kot opazovalec pri japonski vojski v Mandžuriji. Kot priznanje za njegovo službo na Filipinih, ameriški pres.Theodore Roosevelt je leta 1906 napredoval v Pershinga v brigadnega generala iz čin stotnika, pri tem pa je prevzel 862 višjih častnikov. Pershing se je vrnil na Filipine in tam ostal do leta 1913, kjer je bil poveljnik oddelka Mindanao in guverner province Moro. Nato je dobil pozornost kot poveljnik kaznovalne odprave, poslane proti mehiškemu revolucionarju Panchu Villa, ki je leta 1916 napadel Columbus v Novi Mehiki. Po smrti generalmajorja Fredericka Funstona leta 1917 ga je Pershing nasledil kot poveljnik v ZDA -Meksijska meja.Nato je dobil pozornost kot poveljnik kaznovalne odprave, poslane proti mehiškemu revolucionarju Panchu Villa, ki je leta 1916 napadel Columbus v Novi Mehiki. Po smrti generalmajorja Fredericka Funstona leta 1917 ga je Pershing nasledil kot poveljnik v ZDA -Meksijska meja.Nato je dobil pozornost kot poveljnik kaznovalne odprave, poslane proti mehiškemu revolucionarju Panchu Villa, ki je leta 1916 napadel Columbus v Novi Mehiki. Po smrti generalmajorja Fredericka Funstona leta 1917 ga je Pershing nasledil kot poveljnik v ZDA -Meksijska meja.

After the United States declared war on Germany (April 1917), Pres. Woodrow Wilson selected Pershing to command the American troops being sent to Europe. The transition from the anti-insurgency campaigns that had characterized much of Pershing’s career to the vast stagnant siege of the Western Front was an extreme test, but Pershing brought to the challenge a keen administrative sense and a knack for carrying out plans in spite of adversity. With his staff, Pershing landed in France on June 9, 1917, and that month he submitted a “General Organization Report” recommending the creation of an army of one million men by 1918 and three million by 1919. Earlier American planning had not contemplated such a large army. Having assumed that the AEF could not be organized in time to support military operations on the Western Front, the Allies had asked only for financial, economic, and naval assistance. Pershing’s recommendations regarding the numbers and disposition of troops prevailed, however, especially after Allied fortunes worsened during 1917. By early 1918, American plans had called for concentrating an independent army on the Western Front, which Pershing hoped would spearhead a decisive offensive against Germany.

The exhaustion of the Allies, stemming from the setbacks of 1917, increased their dependence on U.S. arms. It also engendered pressure on Pershing to condone the “amalgamation” of small units of American troops into European armies, as the Allies desperately wanted replacements for their depleted formations to resist expected attacks. From the start, Pershing insisted that the integrity of the American army be preserved, making a firm stand against French tutelage and the French desire to infuse the new American blood into their ranks. Pershing also opposed proposals to divert some U.S. troops to secondary theatres. The Supreme War Council, an institution established to coordinate the political-military strategy of the Allies, continually recommended amalgamation and that diversionary operations be conducted elsewhere than in France, but Pershing remained unmoved. If Pershing’s stance imposed a strain on the exhausted Allies, it was justified by the oft-cited warning against “pouring new wine into old bottles.” Pershing also felt that such an arrangement would represent an unprecedented sacrifice of national prestige. He argued that the fielding of an independent American army would be a serious blow to German morale and provide a permanent uplift to American self-confidence.

The disasters of early 1918 seemed to demonstrate the great risk that had been taken in pursuit of Pershing’s ideal. The Germans, their Western Front armies having been strongly reinforced because of the armistice recently concluded between the German-led Central Powers and Russia, embarked on a fresh wave of attacks designed to break the Allies’ will before the Americans could deploy in strength. At the Second Battle of the Somme, German armies advanced 40 miles (64 km) and captured some 70,000 Allied prisoners. When the German offensives of March–June 1918 threatened Paris, Pershing placed all his resources firmly at the disposal of French Marshal Ferdinand Foch. These pressures subsided when the Allies assumed the offensive during the summer, however, and Pershing reverted to his previous policy.

Pershing’s army never became entirely self-sufficient, but it conducted two significant operations. In September 1918 the AEF assaulted the Saint-Mihiel salient successfully. Then, at Foch’s request, later that month Pershing quickly regrouped his forces for the Meuse-Argonne offensive, despite his original plans to advance toward Metz. Though incomplete preparations and inexperience slowed the Meuse-Argonne operations, the inter-Allied offensive in France destroyed German resistance in early October and led to the Armistice the following month.

Pershing was criticized for operational and logistic errors, but his creation of the AEF was a remarkable achievement. He returned home with a sound reputation, and, on September 1, 1919, he was given the rank of general of the armies of the United States. Pershing’s nickname, “Black Jack,” derived from his service with a black regiment early in his career, had come to signify his stern bearing and rigid discipline. His determination and dedication had gained him the respect and admiration of his men, if not their affection. Eschewing politics, Pershing remained in the army, serving as chief of staff from 1921 until his retirement three years later. Pershing’s memoirs were published as My Experiences in the World War, 2 vol. (1931).